20th Century Jerusalem (part 2) + 21st Century Jerusalem

20th century Jerusalem (continued)

The Six-Day War in 1967 began when the Arab nations of Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan all combined forces against Israel. After the Soviets tipped off Syria that the Israeli were going to attack, Egypt gathered troops to launch a preemptive strike, but the Israeli attacked first and took out the Egyptian airforce. The result of the war was that Israel took over the Old City and the Sinai Peninsula, which allowed Israel to control much more land than the UN had originally intended. With this increase in Israeli control, the Palestinians had difficulty claiming their own land, and uprisings like the Intifada took place. The Intifada uprisings were originally peaceful, but violent provocation ensued when the Israeli Prime Minister, Ariel Sharon, visited the Al-Aqsa Mosque. The Oslo Accords in 1993 was an attempt to formally declare a Palestinian state, but this fell apart as well. Held at Norway, the Israeli Prime Minister and Yasser Arafat, the leader of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), met to peacefully discuss PLO requests for Israel to withdraw from the Gaza Strip and West Bank as well as the creation of Palestinian National Authority (PNA). The result was that Israel acknowledged Arafat, as the leader of the PLO, was a representative of the Palestinian people and that the PLO recognized Israel as a state and renounced terrorism. Hence, Palestine still had not established their state and are still trying to do so.

21st century Jerusalem

In 2000, Israel withdrew from southern Lebanon and signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan. They also attempted to sign a peace treaty with Syria, but the Syrian Prime Minister died before it could go through. and the second Intifada took place. After the September 11th attack in 2001 and the U.S. declared war against terrorism, Israel began to construct the West Bank Barrier as they decidedly took sides with the U.S. (which has enormous influence and power in Middle-East politics). This barrier became criticized for creating an apartheid barrier and the Palestinians also criticized Israel for claiming more land on the Israeli side with this barrier. After Yasser Arafat died, the Palestinian Hamas group came into power (after it was discovered there were embezzlement issues with Arafat's group, the Fatah). The Hamas group then used their power to attack the Israeli, which resulted in the Israeli attacking back with missiles. However, the Hamas group was weak and foreign aid attempts to help them out were cut off by the Israeli.

On a side note, the professor also brought up the idea of terrorism and what defines it. It ends up being quite biased depending on which side a person is from (e.g. some may think of it as liberation from an oppressor, etc.) and the context of the situation. We Americans never think of our own actions as "terrorism", but what if we think about it from the other end, or even how we won our independence as a nation? Anyways, that brings an end to the lectures and to the quarter. I learned a lot and it has been a great quarter. Thanks Dr. Cargill! :)

Ottoman Jerusalem (part 2) + 20th Century Jerusalem (part 1)

Mamluk & Ottoman Jerusalem continued

Lecture continued on with the results of all Suleiman's peaceful acceptance of Jews into a Muslim-dominated Jerusalem as he provided them with the Western Wall as a place of prayer. It is important to note that the Western Wall is not part of the Temple itself, but a part of the Temple Mount. We also discussed the rise of early Jewish Zionism before the 20th century. Saladin, who was proclaimed as the "New Cyrus" had allowed Jews to resettle back in Jerusalem during the Islamic Jerusalem period which reintroduced Jews back into their homeland. Other important figures in early Jewish Zionism include Judah Halevi, a Toledan physician, who labelled Jerusalem as the "Gate to Heaven" and that Jews should go on aliyah back to the "Land of their Fathers"  and Maimonides, a Jewish philosopher, who helped reestablish the importance of the physicality of Temple even though it had been destroyed. Instead, the Temple Mount became the new focus and this return to a more physical form of faith contrasted the many years where the Jewish faith had become spiritualized. As a response to this increased importance of the physical presence of Jerusalem, Jewish settlements increased. The first settlements occurred after the Crusaders, while Europeanization during the 19th century introduced a whole new set of ethnic Jews into the region instead of just Orthodox Jews. Throughout the years, we can see a change in demographics of Jerusalem that fluctuated depending on who was ruling the city at the time...which leads up into the 20th century!

20th Century Jerusalem (part 1)

In 20th century Jerusalem, we see a rise in secular Zionism. Orthodox Jews rejected secular Zionism because they felt that Jews needed to act and live by the faith, not just move out to Jerusalem and claim they are "Jewish". Hence, secular Zionism was not really a religious movement, but more of a need to find a gathering place. Theodore Herzl was a prominent figure in secular Zionism, but he ironically felt that Jerusalem was not central in his ideas; he felt that a Zionist state could exist elsewhere (Uganda). This rise in Zionism can be linked to the rise of European Nationalism and the pride that came with belonging to a country and Jews wanted to have their own place too. Since they didn't really belong in any particular nation, they were persecuted by many and hence the rise of anti-Semitism began to take place (e.g. Hitler). The result was a massive increase in Jews in Palestine (which by the way is not a nation, but instead the general area; it was named that by the Romans) and conflicts began to arise between the Jews and the Palestinians already living there. 

Eventually, World War I changed everything as the Ottoman empire that controlled Palestine was dissolved, Jerusalem saw an increase in Armenians who were escaping genocide in their homeland, and the British became a major player in Middle-East conflicts. With the conclusion of the war, the Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916), a secret agreement between UK and France, sought to divide up the conquered Palestinian land. With this newly conquered land, the Brits issued the Balfour Declaration which was the first British endeavor to support Jewish Zionist aspirations in Palestine (as long as the other religions were allowed to coexist there as well). Hence, the British Mandate began and they promised they would protect all existing faiths in their region. Following the Balfour Declaration, there was a lot of confusion in who the Brits would be supporting; both the Jews and the Palestinians believed the Brits would be aiding their respective sides. Hence, Winston Churchill wrote the British White Paper of 1922 which sought to clarify what the British wanted; it didn't really clarify anything, but one thing was that the area east of Jordan was renamed the Transjordan and given to Abdullah I. The Peel Commission was a response to the violence between Arabs and Jews. The proposal was to have a border drawn between Jewish and Arabic land as well as declare Jerusalem an international city. The Jews agreed, but the Arabs refused. With the increasingly hectic conflict and dying troops, the British eventually remove their mandate and leave the Arabs and Jews to fight it out amongst themselves in the War of Independence, or the Arab-Israeli War of 1948. The result was that both Israel and Jordan got their own respective states. The city of Jerusalem had its own boundaries drawn up, but because of the main economy being tourism, this affected political negotiations by keeping thing as peaceful as possible.

Very interesting lecture! Good to know all about the political history behind the conflicts that are occurring in modern-day Jerusalem. I find it really interesting that Palestine seems to be forever tangled up in the politics of multiple nations and how everyone seems to find a reason to claim the area as their own.

Mamluk and Ottoman Jerusalem

Mamluk Jerusalem
The Mamluk period of Jerusalem occurred between 1244-1516 and was a time when the city became a religious center. The Mamluks were soldiers of slave origin who converted to Islam and their domination of Jerusalem was a long-lived movement, not a dynasty. During this time, Jerusalem was politically and militarily insignificant as the place was used for political exile. As a result, Jerusalem became an increasingly religious center, not a political one. Development ensued with within the Muslim quarter with the construction of schools, hospices, hostels, and many other buildings. Mamluk architecture was characterized by domes, utilized muqarnas (a decorative technique used inside domes and above entrances), and had enormous entrances. The al-madrasa al-Ashrafiyya is an example of a school built with Mamluk architectural designs. The Haram was also developed with the restoration of the Dome of the Rock and the al-Aqsa Mosque as well as other constructions. In addition to the developing Muslim quarter, the Jewish quarter was growing as well in terms of its expansion as a religious center. Rabbi Moses ben Nachman made an aliyah in 1267 CE and became of of history's first Zionists as he wanted Jews to come to Jerusalem physically. He developed the Kabbalah, or Jewish Mysticism, in which the Temple became a symbolic pathway to God. Pretty interesting how he developed a more spiritual faith with the Kabbalah while simulataneously advocating for an aliyah from all Jews (which demanded a physical presence).

Ottoman Jerusalem
When Selim I defeated the Mamluks in 1517, period known as Ottoman Jerusalem took place from 1516-1918. The administration was controlled under a strong centralized government and was an incredibly long rule. One of the greatest rulers during this period was Sultan Suleiman the Magnificient who contributed to the development of many public works in Jerusalem including repairing/enlarging pools, rebuilding walls, refurbishing the Haram, renovating markets, and many others. He established a shari'a court, which basically followed a religious law based upon text (here the law is based upon Islam). He also encouraged the Jews to return to Jerusalem and resettle back into the restored city. Suleiman's restoration of the Holy City as well as his religious tolerance aided the city into settling into a peaceful mode for a while. The lecture ended with a discussion of Ottoman architecture including all of the gates that surround the city. I like how we are discussing so much about architecture! I really like knowing why and how things were built as well as stylistic details about different periods of architecture.

Crusader Jerusalem

The period known as the Crusades extended from 1099 to 1187 as the Christian presence became increasingly dominant. Christians were being persecuted in Jerusalem and the divisions within the Roman Empire in the west also catalyzed the rise of the Crusades as Pope Urban II gave a speech announcing that those who embark on the journey to recapture Jerusalem from the Muslims will be granted penance for their past sins (aka indulgences). This journey that is authorized by the pope on Christ's behalf is also known as a crusade. The "holy war" commenced with intense enthusiasm as an astonishing number of people (more than what the pope expected) volunteered to go on the crusade. Christians embarked on the journey at different times as the poorer people set off first (the First Crusade) and did not end successfully as they were ill-prepared for battle against the Turks. During the Second Crusade, people that could afford to do so spent a few years collecting resources before setting out and this endeavor was a much more successful one.

On July 15, 1099, Jerusalem was taken over by Godfrey de Bouillon and the city was divided into four quarters. The Patriarch's quarter contained the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, the Templars' quarter was located at the newly converted Al-Aqsa Mosque, the Syrian quarter was where the city was originally breached, and the Armenian quarter was the remaining part of the city in the southwest. The Templars were an important group of individuals as they provided protection to Christian pilgrims and escorted them safely into Jerusalem. It is interesting to note that the Templar symbol is two men riding on a horse together which may symbolize how they protected the pilgrims, or perhaps it symbolized the Templars' duty to protect pilgrims. The Crusades came to an end in 1187 when Salah ad-Din (aka Saladin), a Muslim leader, defeated them at the Horns of Hattin. Saladin gave the Church of the Holy Sepulcher to the Orthodox Greeks and allowed Jews to resettle in Jerusalem again. A third crusade lead by Richard "The Lionheart" in 1192 was unsuccessful in reclaiming Jerusalem for the Christians, but Richard was able to draw a truce with Saladin to allow Christians to enter the city again for pilgrimages.

Islamic Jerusalem

The early Islamic Jerusalem period lasted from 638CE to 1099CE (which was when the Crusaders came and took over). Before the Islamic takeover, the Byzantine empire was meeting its end as the Sasanians took over Palestine and Jerusalem. The Sasanians (who were the last pre-Islamic Persian empire) allowed the Jews to return back to their city for the first time since the Second Jewish Revolt. However, this was short-lived as Emperor Heraclius later allowed for the massacre of Jews in Jerusalem. It wasn't until Caliph Umar, the Muslim king/religious leader, that took over in 638CE that the Jews were allowed to resettle back in Jerusalem (although at the beginning he had agreed with the Christians not to do so). It is important to note that after the first three caliphs following the death of Muhammad (Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman), the Muslim religion was split into two followings: the Shi'ites (about 15% of Muslims) who followed the kinship caliphate after Muhammad's son-in-law, Ali, and the Sunnis (about 75-80% Muslims) who followed the tradition-based caliphate after Mu'awiya (Uthman's cousin).

With the rise of the Islamic faith in Jerusalem, many of the city's constructions and religious expressions were redefined with Islam. The main Islamic city was still Mecca, but Jerusalem began to rise in Islamic prominence. The Temple Mount became known as Haram al-Sharif ( aka "The Noble Sanctuary") and families that left Jerusalem on Hajj (aka the pilgrimage to Mecca) would decorate their doors in bright writing/drawings to indicate their departure and ward off burglars while they were away. Despite the focus on Islam in Jerusalem, the rulers under the Umayyad Dynasty remained tolerant of both Jews and Christians. In terms of architectural constructions during the Islamic rule, Caliph Wahid (also known as Abd al-Malik) began the building of Islamic palaces and administrative buildings. These were never quite completed, but one thing he was able to complete was the construction of the Dome of the Rock.

The Dome of the Rock was a shrine (not a mosque) and was decorated like many Islamic structures: with geometric shapes and calligraphy (depictions of people and animals was not allowed). Personally, I loved the gold-plated roof that was used to decorate the building as it is gorgeous and I'm sure people would be able to see the building from very far away. Nevertheless, the architecture itself reflected Christian styles (it reflected the construction of a Byzantine martyria) as the architects hired were Byzantine Christians. The Dome of the Rock contains a notable inscription stating that the Islam faith accepts Christians and Jews as believers of the same God, but rejects the Christian idealogy of the Trinity. Muslims don't believe in there being three parts to God, but that there is only one true entity that can be deemed God. Other important Islamic structures in Jerusalem's Temple Mount include the Dome of the Chain, which is a prayer house that stands right next to the Dome of the Rock, and the Al Aqsa Mosque (aka "The Farthest Mosque") in which a prayer in there is worth 500 prayers elsewhere. I don't know much about the Islamic faith, but it is pretty interesting that they would quantify prayers and measure their worth that way.

Byzantine Jerusalem

After the Romans conquered Jerusalem, the city eventually became a Christian-centered one. The rise of Christianity expanded into the west and with that came the development of new theological ideas that contrasted the old Jewish religion. These new Christian ideas focused upon an increasingly spiritual faith and a "rejection" of the temple which consequentially led to a decreased emphasis on the importance of Jerusalem as a holy place. It was still considered holy (as Jerusalem was believed to be where Jesus was crucified, buried, and resurrected), but now religion had become more internalized. The New Testament of the Christian Bible alludes to this with Jesus' prophecies of the destruction of the temple of Jerusalem. These religious changes were a defining feature of the Byzantine empire and also became characteristic to the way the empire was ruled.

The Byzantine empire was characterized by a tetrarchy (4 total rulers) since the empire was so large that Emperor Diocletian decided to split the administration between the East and the West. Both sides had an Augustus (synonymous to "emperor") and a Caesar (synonymous to a "vice-emperor"). After Diocletian died, the end of the tetrachy was reached at the Battle of Milvian Bridge in which Constantine won and took over. Under Constantine's rule, Christianity was legalized (as stated via the Edict of Milan) and was arguably the religion that he made use of to unify his empire. He also promoted his mother, Helena, as an empress and allowed her to direct the construction of multiple religious buildings as well as the rededication of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (where it was believed Jesus was buried). With all these new religious constructions occurring in Jersualem, pilgrimages became increasingly important in the Christian faith. A mosaic known as the Madaba map located in a church in Jordan provides a fantastic illustration of the layout of Jerusalem during the Byzantine period. One thing notable about this mosaic was the fact that the Temple Mount was not the center of the image, but rather the Cardo, which was an important and defining street in Roman architecture, and the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. This showed how the Jewish power was significantly reduced and replaced by the new Roman and Christian influence. Another important Christian construction during the Byzantine period was the Nea (New) Church built under Emperor Justinian. This church can be viewed as an attempt to replace the old temple and out-do the original as a symbol of Christian domination.

Probably the most interesting thing about this lecture was understanding how the Christian faith came about and rose in prominence (especially in the West). Now with the upcoming lecture we shall see how the third one, Islam, comes into play...

Jerusalem in Revolt

Under Roman rule, The Jews had two major revolts: the 1st Jewish Revolt (aka "The Great Revolt") and the 2nd Jewish Revolt (aka "Bar Kokhba Revolt"). After King Herod's rule, his kingdom was divided among his three sons and their power was restricted even more. These rulers were eventually replaced by Roman procurators and hence the kingdom was now under direct Roman rule. One of these governors, Pontius Pilate, was the only one mentioned in the Bible since he was the one that tried Jesus and had him executed. He was an ineffective governor because he was unable to accommodate with the Jewish way of life and provoked conflict. Overtime, the 1st Jewish Revolt erupted and the Temple as well as Jerusalem were destroyed in 70 CE under the rule of Titus. To commemorate the Roman victory, the Arch of Titus was constructed and the currency depicted the Jewish being taken over and conquered. The destroyed Temple remained in ruins until Hadrian came and rebuilt the Temple, only this time it was dedicate to Jupiter instead. As a result of the destruction, cognitive dissonance ensued and religion became more spiritualized and philosophical instead of depending upon a physical place for worship. A holdout known as Masada located on a plateau on the southwest shore of the Dead Sea was the Jewish refuge during the revolt against the Romans.

The Bark Kokhba revolt was not as successful as the first one. A man named Simon Bar-Kokhba welcomed the idea of messianism and entitled himself as a "prince" who tried to rally the Jews up against the Romans. As a method of retaliation, they even made overstrikes on coins as a form of propaganda to declare Jewish independence and eliminate the Roman influence by literally "striking out" the pagan symbols on the Roman currency the Jews were forced to use. The outcome of the revolt was not a pleasant one: Emperor Hadrian punished the Jews heavily for their uprising and rebuilt Jerusalem as a Roman city. He renamed it Aelia Capitolina and rebuilt the temple as and dedicated it to Jupiter instead. With the Jewish Temple completely eradicated, the development of Jewish synagogues became another place of worship for the Jews so that they could maintain what religious traditions they still had despite the lack of a centralized temple.